1. | EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS |
1.1. | What is an off grid zero emission electricity supply? |
1.2. | Zero emission off grid system architecture |
1.3. | Minigrids with multi-mode harvesting |
1.4. | Purpose and context of this report |
1.5. | Much is changing |
1.5.1. | Stealing the emperor's clothes: Market drivers for off grid are strengthening |
1.6. | Zero emission electricity generation market by source $bn <100MW groups 2028 and 2038 |
1.7. | Market driven approach: uninterrupted transportable green electricity |
1.8. | Energy independent ship opportunity: 3MW gap in the market |
1.9. | The ultimate all-weather mobile genset: no emissions, little energy storage? |
1.10. | Definitions |
1.10.1. | Overview |
1.11. | On-grid vs off grid by country |
1.12. | More reasons to worry about national grids now |
1.12.1. | Five factors |
1.12.2. | Why even electricity utilities back off grid |
1.13. | Overview of off grid structure and history |
1.13.1. | Structure |
1.13.2. | History |
1.13.3. | Electricity supply in 2018 and 2050: here comes off grid |
1.13.4. | Access to electricity by people in 2018: conflicting forces |
1.13.5. | Bridging technologies: solar assisted diesel gensets |
1.14. | Which renewables, mainly zero emission, take over grid and off grid generation |
1.15. | Off-grid leading technologies: PV with Li-ion batteries winning |
1.16. | Addressable markets |
1.16.1. | Introduction |
1.16.2. | Reliable electricity in Africa |
1.16.3. | Population by per capita income |
1.16.4. | Off grid renewable energy installed capacity in 2050 |
1.16.5. | Installed capacity 2018-2050 kTWh/yr by grid, fringe of grid, off grid stationary, vehicle |
1.16.6. | Installed capacity 2018kTWh/yr by grid, fringe of grid, off grid stationary, vehicle |
1.16.7. | Installed capacity 2028 kTWh/yr by grid, fringe of grid, off grid stationary, vehicle |
1.16.8. | Installed capacity 2040 kTWh/yr by grid, fringe of grid, off grid stationary, vehicle |
1.16.9. | Installed capacity 2050 kTWh/yr by grid, fringe of grid, off grid stationary, vehicle |
1.16.10. | Situation where grid access is lacking or poor |
1.16.11. | Average annual lighting spend by off-grid population $/year 2012 |
1.16.12. | Africa |
1.16.13. | Sales of large hybrid and pure electric vehicles globally in 17 categories number k 2013-2028 |
1.16.14. | Off-grid solar forecast |
1.16.15. | Pico solar as indicator of microsolar |
1.17. | Technology roadmaps |
1.17.1. | Overview |
1.17.2. | Off grid technology and adoption roadmap: harvesting |
1.17.3. | Off grid technology and adoption roadmap: storage |
1.18. | Continuity as important as cost: energy storage vs energy harvesting for continuity |
1.18.1. | Overview |
1.18.2. | Adoption, transition, optimisation |
1.18.3. | Options for tapping excellent 200+m wind: particularly strong at night when PV is off |
1.19. | Solar power for sustainable development |
2. | INTRODUCTION |
2.1. | Electrification alone will save 42% of world power demand |
2.2. | System elements |
2.2.1. | Where the term zero emission off-grid is used |
2.2.2. | Off-grid structural types |
2.3. | Basic configuration |
2.4. | Energy harvesting (EH) |
2.4.1. | Definition and overview |
2.4.2. | Market drivers for off grid energy harvesting |
2.4.3. | Features of energy harvesting |
2.4.4. | EH transducer construction, materials |
2.4.5. | Energy harvesting transducer options compared for all applications |
2.4.6. | Off-Grid Energy Harvesting technology intermittent power generated |
2.4.7. | Efficiency |
2.4.8. | Energy harvesting is an immature industry |
2.4.9. | IFEVS Italy energy independent electric restaurant van |
2.5. | Gaps in the market : replace 6-800GWh of diesel gensets |
2.6. | Electrodynamics |
2.6.1. | Overview |
2.6.2. | Electrodynamic parameters |
2.7. | Geothermal |
2.8. | Magnetostriction for 100kW+ wave power |
2.9. | What is a battery? |
2.9.1. | Basics |
2.9.2. | Ecosystem for the whole battery life |
2.9.3. | Ongoing lithium-ion fires and explosions - computers, cars, aircraft |
2.9.4. | Hoverboards |
2.9.5. | Next Li-ion failures and production delays due to cutting corners |
2.10. | E.ON electricity utility promotes off-grid |
2.11. | Standards and certification |
2.12. | ABB microgrids |
2.13. | China leads in photovoltaics |
2.14. | Renault Group's smart island |
2.15. | Australia can and should go off grid? |
2.15.1. | IRENA view |
2.15.2. | IRENA background data |
2.16. | Local experience |
2.17. | International Energy Agency (IEA) view |
2.18. | Palau to host world's largest microgrid |
3. | PROGRESS AND OPPORTUNITIES WORLDWIDE: EXAMPLES |
3.1. | Overview |
3.2. | Finance and coordination |
3.3. | Trend in Africa |
3.4. | American Samoa |
3.5. | Antigua |
3.6. | Australia |
3.6.1. | Schneider gets greenlight for energy project in South Australia |
3.6.2. | Tesla off grid houses 30% cheaper than grid |
3.7. | Bangladesh |
3.8. | Cambodia |
3.9. | China |
3.10. | Democratic Republic of Congo |
3.11. | Dubai |
3.12. | India |
3.13. | Renewable electricity: more attention now |
3.14. | Japan |
3.15. | Kenya |
3.16. | Laos |
3.17. | Mali |
3.18. | Malta |
3.19. | Morocco |
3.20. | New Zealand |
3.21. | Nigeria |
3.22. | Puerto Rico |
3.22.1. | sonnen brings power to Puerto Rico |
3.23. | Sierra Leone |
3.24. | Tanzania |
3.25. | USA |
3.25.1. | Microgrids boost edge of grid and provide backup |
4. | OFF-GRID ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES COMPARED |
4.1. | Overview |
4.2. | Important parameters |
4.3. | Comparison of desirable features of EH technologies |
4.4. | Relative benefits of EH technologies vs needs |
4.5. | Hype curve for EH technologies |
4.6. | Thermoelectric microgrids: when? |
5. | ELECTRICITY FROM LIGHT AND INFRARED |
5.1. | Overview |
5.2. | Thermoelectric Microgrids: When? |
5.3. | Example: boat as a minigrid |
5.4. | Main PV options beyond silicon |
5.5. | Best research-cell efficiencies |
5.6. | Photovoltaics becomes cheaper than large onshore wind in 2020 |
5.7. | Photovoltaics experience curve 2018 |
5.8. | pn junction vs photoelectrochemical DSSC |
5.9. | Comparison G24i Indoor Module vs aSi Module Power Density |
5.10. | DSSC addressable niche markets |
5.11. | Solar greenhouses generate electricity and grow crops |
5.12. | University of Colorado Boulder 2018 |
5.13. | Building integrated photovoltaic thermal (BIPVT) |
5.14. | Electricity generating roads, paths: Piezo, electrodynamic or heat? |
5.15. | Electricity from heat of roads, parking lots etc |
5.16. | Silent city |
5.17. | Building integrated photovoltaics BIPV |
5.18. | Increasing silicon photovoltaic efficiency |
6. | ELECTRICITY FROM WIND |
6.1. | Small wind turbines |
6.2. | Electricity from wind |
6.3. | Below 100kW wind turbines get niche |
6.4. | Off grid electricity from wind |
6.5. | Ground turbine wind power does not downsize well: physics and poorer wind |
6.6. | Turbine choices |
6.7. | Vertical Axis Wind Turbines VAWT have a place |
6.8. | Electrical autonomy using wind alone: Inerjy 70kW energy independent boat being built with H-VAWT |
6.9. | Energy Observer microgrid - VAWT wind and sun |
6.10. | Airborne Wind Energy |
6.11. | Electrodynamics: pumping action of tethered drone |
6.12. | Main Airborne Wind Energy options taken seriously |
6.13. | Example: opportunities for AWE |
6.14. | Two very different needs for AWE |
6.15. | Bladetips Energy |
6.16. | Ampyx Power |
6.17. | TwingTec |
6.18. | Primary conclusions: the MW grid opportunity most are chasing |
6.19. | Primary conclusions: the opportunity beyond MW grid |
6.20. | Primary conclusions: AWE technologies |
6.21. | Hybrid piezo photovoltaic film and fiber for sails etc |
6.22. | More efficient small wind turbines |
7. | ELECTRICITY FROM WATER "BLUE ENERGY" |
7.1. | Focus of this chapter |
7.2. | Sources and technologies of inland water power |
7.2.1. | Inland water power: sources, location potential |
7.2.2. | Overall small hydro potential for steady supply with little or no storage |
7.3. | Sources and technologies of marine (ocean) power |
7.3.1. | Marine power: sources, location potential |
7.3.2. | Where ocean power is both strongest and close to population |
7.3.3. | Location of strongest ocean power for replacing diesel gensets |
7.4. | Zero emission technology evolution: water power in context |
7.4.1. | Overview |
7.4.2. | Brief summary of water power technologies using water movement |
7.4.3. | Technology options wave and tide stream: popularity by projects examined |
7.4.4. | Ocean conversion technology winners and losers |
7.5. | Optimal power ranges for hydro and marine mini/ microgrid power sources |
7.6. | Small inland hydro <10MW SOFT report |
7.7. | Wave power <10MW SOFT report |
7.8. | Tidal power <10MW SOFT report |
7.9. | Three strategies for new water power: very different LCOE targets needed |
7.10. | Inland hydro the only past water success, wave takes big orders, tidal stream later |
7.11. | Global primary energy consumption TWh |
7.12. | Expect many new applications: Example - Sea Bubble water taxi charging |
7.13. | Hype curve for water power |
8. | BATTERIES |
8.1. | Electrochemistry definitions |
8.2. | Useful charts for performance comparison |
8.3. | The battery trilemma |
8.4. | Stationary energy storage is not new |
8.5. | The increasingly important role of stationary storage |
8.6. | New avenues for stationary storage |
8.7. | Off grid energy storage technologies |
8.8. | Energy storage technologies in comparison |
8.9. | Values provided by battery storage in ancillary services |
8.10. | Costs: a major impediment |
8.11. | Value Chain |
8.12. | The launch of Tesla Energy and corresponding sales |
8.13. | Powerwall's specifications |
8.14. | Powerwall - a breakthrough product? |
8.15. | Analysis of Tesla's strategy |
8.16. | Background of Tesla's Gigafactory |
8.17. | The impact of Tesla's Gigafactory |
8.18. | The story did not start with Tesla and will not end with Tesla |
8.19. | BYD |
8.20. | BYD's layout is similar to Tesla and it makes wind turbines too |
8.21. | Mercedes-Benz Energy Storage and Daimler's 2nd-use stationary battery storage project |
8.22. | Redox Flow Batteries (RFB) |
8.23. | The case for RFBs |
8.24. | The price of RFBs |
8.25. | The price of RFBs - LCOS |
8.26. | Redox flow batteries in the news |
8.27. | Redox flow batteries and caves |
8.28. | Guide to understanding the charts |
8.29. | Largest operational RFB projects |
8.30. | Market players (operational projects) |
8.31. | Hype curve for RFB technologies |
8.32. | Other RFB configurations |
9. | OTHER OFF GRID ENERGY STORAGE |
9.1. | Gravity storage cheaper, safer, cleaner, longer lived than batteries? |
9.2. | Borkum Municipality with a flagship project for energy storage - news in 2019 |
9.3. | Other off grid energy storage |