Electric Vehicles: Land, Sea, and Air 2025-2045

Electric vehicle markets, electric cars, electric trucks, eLCVs, electric boats and ships, electric vehicles for construction and mining, electric air taxis, and electric planes. Technologies: Li-ion, charging, motors, power electronics.

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'Electric Vehicles: Land, Sea and Air 2025-2045' is IDTechEx's comprehensive electric vehicle (EV) master report covering eleven EV markets with over 148 forecast lines. The report covers all vehicle volume and drivetrain breakdowns, including battery-electric, fuel cell, and hybrid vehicle unit sales, battery demand (GWh), and market revenue (US$ billion). The report contextualizes these sectors' current and future growth potential, detailing the regulatory and economic drivers for emerging electrification. Detailed analysis of the technology trends underpinning the transition is included, covering key areas such as silicon-anode batteries, axial-flux motors, megawatt DC fast charging, and more.
 
 
In 2023 over 800GWh of batteries were required for electric vehicles. Electric cars dominated the demand with a share of over 86%. Other sectors still contribute a significant end-source market for batteries, and this report tracks how the global battery demand is set to evolve over the next 20 years. Source: IDTechEx report 'Electric Vehicles: Land, Sea, and Air 2025-2045'.
 
Electric Cars - Largest Sector Drives Battery Demand
Electric cars represent the largest EV market over the forecast period in terms of battery demand and market value. In H1 2024, sales of electric cars stagnated somewhat globally, but there was drastic regional variation to this trend. While the NEV market in China set new records, sales in Europe grew by around 1%. However, 2025 will bring major changes to regulations in key regions that will necessitate an increase in BEV sales - as covered in this report. Low-cost, mass-market models are now being introduced to the market (often enabled by LFP batteries), and this shift away from premium high-end models will allow BEV sales to reach previously untapped markets. Plug-in hybrid vehicles have seen stronger than predicted growth, particularly in China, and a lack of phase-out for PHEV subsidies (outside of Europe) will be reflected in sustained demand for PHEVs. However, IDTechEx expects steadily decreasing battery costs and a consolidated growth in charging infrastructure will erode PHEVs perceived advantages over BEVs.
 
Commercial Vehicles (Vans, Trucks, Buses) - Emerging Electrification
Commercial vehicles are deployed in smaller volumes than passenger cars but due to their typically higher unit costs and larger battery capacities, they play a significant role in the global EV market. Commercial vehicles are much more significantly affected by total cost of ownership (TCO) considerations than private cars, and this report shows how electrification must enable operational cost savings to drive adoption. Generally, electrification rates in commercial vehicles are lower than in cars, but IDTechEx research indicates that these sectors may be in the early stages of significant growth.
 
Generous subsidies from the Chinese government supported the rapid deployment of electric buses in major Chinese cities in the early 2010s. IDTechEx predicts that due to the saturation of China's electric bus market, global sales will not surpass their 2016 peak again until 2040, with future growth fuelled by replacements in China and greater adoption in emerging markets for electric buses such as Europe, India, and the US. The report covers how the European market has been underpinned by Chinese OEMs, but local supply is now starting to ramp up. Local and regional emissions restrictions are driving the electrification of city buses, while coaches remain both technically and economically harder to electrify due to longer routes and less subsidy support.
 
Much of the eLCV market's growth to date has been driven by government regulation and the increasing desire to roll out zero-emission last-mile logistics solutions for road freight and e-commerce. The report details how 5% of all LCV sales in 2023 were EVs - greater than any other class of commercial vehicles except buses. However, the spread of eLCVs globally has been far from equal. Europe and China, driven by tighter emissions restrictions and more lucrative purchase grants for eLCVs, have both seen rapid market expansion and are approaching 10% EV penetration. Meanwhile, the US lags far behind on electrification legislation and benefits from lower fossil fuel prices to the detriment of its eLCV market.
 
Despite this, IDTechEx expects the regulatory landscape around eLCV emissions will become even more restrictive over the next two decades, as governments stretch to meet their Paris Agreement goals and other sustainability initiatives. IDTechEx predicts that such developments will provide a major boost to the industry as a whole and incentivize the uptake of eLCV fleets.
 
Tesla, Daimler, VW, and Volvo are all investing heavily in battery electric trucks. A smaller minority, Toyota & Hyundai, have chosen to focus their efforts on fuel cell trucks as the powertrain of the future. Despite issues with the efficiency and cost of hydrogen as a fuel, FCEV remains in the conversation as a technology for long-haul trucking applications, dependent on the production of low-cost green hydrogen. This report shows how electrification of trucking remains challenging due to the demanding daily mileage requirements, particularly for heavy-duty trucks. IDTechEx expects the adoption of megawatt (MW) charging standards to be key to unlocking new applications of eTrucks. With cheaper electricity prices ($/kWh) and decreasing battery pack prices, many regions are approaching TCO break-even between diesel and battery-electric for certain truck applications. However, governmental support and availability of charging infrastructure vary significantly, which will be reflected in a varied uptake of zero-emissions trucking solutions.
 
MicroEVs - Booming Market for Personal Mobility
In China and India, as well as several other Asian regions, two- and three-wheelers are the dominant form of personal mobility. In terms of electrification, these have typically been dominated by lead-acid battery variants. With the small battery size and low motor power required for these vehicles, they can present a relatively low-cost form of electrification. The report covers how microcars are emerging as a popular form of transport in China, thanks to the lower range requirement needed and the ability to traverse crowded cities more easily than a full-sized car. The microEV segment currently dominates unit volumes and will remain a large market in the long term, however, its battery demand will be overshadowed in the long run by the rapidly growing electric car market with much larger battery capacities per vehicle.
 
Electric & Hybrid Marine - Electrification on the High Seas
Today, electric & hybrid propulsion systems in marine have mostly emerged in recreational boating, ferries, and short-sea or inland vessels, where they have enjoyed steady uptake due to small vessel sizes or well-defined operational profiles that allow for opportunity charging. In larger deep-sea vessels, uptake is less rapid but gaining momentum as unprecedented global emissions regulations from the IMO and EU, which initially targeted NOx, SOx & PM, are now focussing on carbon & GHG emissions. The maritime sector is therefore under increasing pressure to decarbonize and meet broader climate goals, and while there is no silver bullet, solutions are potentially emerging into 'multiple silver bullets', each of which can target a specific subsector. For example, batteries for pure electric ferries and tugboats, and green fuels (often paired with batteries) in hybrid sea-going vessels. This report covers IDTechEx's research on battery electric marine vessels, assessing the key technical and economic requirements for marine vessel battery solutions.
 
Electric Trains - Solution to Un-electrifiable Rails
Rail networks today already largely consist of electric trains 'tethered' to electric overhead and live rail systems. However, this is not feasible everywhere due to high infrastructure cost/mile, remote geographic locations, and the practicality of building through tunnels and bridges. For these stretches of track, rail OEMs and operators currently rely on diesel fuel. Despite a relatively low regulatory push to phase out the use of diesel units, multiple rail OEMs and operators are imposing self-set targets to
transition towards zero-emission rail technologies. This report sets out how battery electric and fuel cell electric trains are forecast to be deployed initially in multiple units (MUs), but will eventually serve the locomotive and shunter sectors.
 
Electric Vehicles in Construction & Mining - TCO Savings Drive Adoption
Construction & Mining vehicles are commercial tools with a heavy focus on total cost of ownership (TCO). Although electrification is at its early stages, and electric machines often come with a premium anywhere from 50-100%, the report outlines how the significant fuel requirements of these machines mean TCO savings are already possible, and in most cases, the TCO outlook will improve significantly with decreasing Li-ion battery prices. Local regulation and policy may be a short-term driver for some regions (particularly Northern Europe), but in most cases, the reduced reliance on high (and volatile) diesel prices will be the key driver to electrification. Mining haul trucks will be some of the largest land vehicles to electrify, with batteries on the order of MWhs.
 
Electric Aviation - eVTOL & eCTOL Take Flight but Technical Challenges Remain
Electric aviation is one of the least developed sectors covered in this report. Electric conventional take-off and landing (eCTOL) aircraft, face significant technical hurdles. Despite the success of batteries in the automotive industry, and the admirable technological improvements they have shown, it will be almost impossible for battery-electric aircraft to achieve the ranges of existing jet fuel airplanes. The batteries will simply be too heavy, especially for commercial airliners, which need to burn tens of tonnes of fuel before landing to hit their maximum landing weights. This weight limit leaves scarcely a few tonnes of wiggle room for batteries to occupy. A narrow-body airplane like the Boeing 737-10 requires around 100MWh to get its full range. A battery this size would weigh hundreds of tonnes. Even future battery technologies like silicon-anode, metal-anode, or aluminum air will likely be too heavy. As such, full range with battery power alone is a near impossibility. Despite this, the report details how strategic deployment of battery electric planes to high-traffic, low-distance routes is a plausible avenue for electrification.
 
Electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft are an emerging technology that seeks to offer air taxi and passenger drone services. Although 'flying taxis' are not a fixture of modern life, this report shows how technological and regulatory developments are beginning to make this a reality. Hundreds of concept eVTOL aircraft have been introduced in recent years, however very few of them have actually flown, and even fewer have any outlook for certification, commercial launch, or operations at scale. The years leading up to 2024 saw some OEMs finishing the assembly of type-conforming eVTOLs, which is an important step to achieving the type certification required to begin commercial passenger operations. A few OEMs have also made full-scale demonstrators. These demonstrators are usually larger and more advanced than scale models or prototypes, representing a significant step towards the eventual commercialization of eVTOL aircraft.
 
Technology: Li-ion & Advanced Li-ion Batteries, Electric Motors, and Power Electronics
The EV market has seen large shifts in battery chemistry, with LFP nearly exiting the market, before becoming a major choice of cathode, especially within China. As they start to reach their performance limits and as environmental and supply risks are highlighted, improvements and alternatives to Li-ion batteries will become increasingly important. This report summarizes trends and developments in advanced battery technologies, including Li-ion cell designs, silicon anodes, solid-state, and cell-to-pack/cell-to-chassis.
 
Electric motor technology has rapidly improved with the adoption of EVs and now sustainability and material sourcing are becoming an increasing focus. The report covers the various strategies several OEMs and tier 1s have adopted (including permanent magnet-free designs) to reduce costs and reliance on rare earths.
 
Developments in automotive power electronics including inverters, onboard chargers, and DC-DC converters, can improve powertrain efficiency, allowing for either battery pack capacity reduction or improved range. The report covers key technology trends, such as the transition to silicon carbide MOSFETs and high-voltage vehicle platforms at or above 800V. Tesla was the first to market in 2017, but many have now also deployed SiC, or plan to in the future. The transition is presenting fresh challenges for power module package materials.
 
Charging Infrastructure
Adequate charging infrastructure is key to EV adoption across the vehicle segments and deployment will be driven by tens of millions of BEVs & PHEVs being deployed each year. Charging beyond traditional automotive requires alternative solutions, and this report gives an overview of some of these such as megawatt charging for heavy-duty applications and off-grid solutions for remote or grid-constrained locations.
 
Key aspects
This report provides an extensive overview of electric vehicle markets across land, sea, and air.
Each chapter includes:
  • Historic market performance
  • Vehicle specifications
  • Players
  • Technologies
  • Market forecasts in units, battery demand (GWh), and value (US$).
 
The vehicle categories covered are:
  • Electric Cars
  • Electric Light Commercial Vehicles (eLCVs)
  • Electric Trucks
  • Electric Buses
  • Micro EVs (two-wheelers, three-wheelers, microcars)
  • Electric Boats & Ships
  • Electric Construction Vehicles
  • Electric Mining Vehicles
  • Electric Trains
  • Electric Conventional Aircraft (eCTOL)
  • Electric Air Taxis (eVTOL)
 
Key technologies are also covered, looking at the major technology trends in:
  • Li-ion batteries
  • Electric motors
  • Power Electronics
  • Charging infrastructure.
Report MetricsDetails
Historic Data2015 - 2024
CAGRThe global electric vehicle market will grow at a CAGR of 7%.
Forecast Period2025 - 2045
Forecast UnitsUnits, US$, GWh.
Regions CoveredWorldwide
Segments Covered-Electric Cars -Electric Light Commercial Vehicles -Electric Trucks -Electric Buses -Micro EVs -Electric Boats & Ships -Electric Construction Vehicles -Electric Mining Vehicles -Electric & Fuel Cell Trains -Electric Conventional Aircraft -Electric Vertical Take-off and Landing (eVTOL)
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1.EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.1.Electric Vehicle Definitions
1.2.Report Overview
1.3.Electric Vehicles Land, Sea, & Air - Unit Sales 2023-2045
1.4.Electric Vehicles Land, Sea, & Air - Battery Demand 2023-2045
1.5.Electric Vehicles Land, Sea, & Air - Market Value 2023-2045
1.6.Passenger Cars - Summary
1.7.Light Commercial Vehicles - Summary
1.8.Trucks - Summary
1.9.Buses - Summary
1.10.Micromobility - Summary
1.11.Construction - Summary
1.12.Mining - Summary
1.13.Marine - Summary
1.14.Trains - Summary
1.15.eCTOL - Summary
1.16.eVTOL - Summary
1.17.Growth and Forecast Size of Sectors - Summary
1.18.Drivers for Electrification
1.19.Overview of Drivers for Electrification (1)
1.20.Overview of Drivers for Electrification (2)
1.21.Electrified Share of New Sales
1.22.Alternatives to Electrification
1.23.Electric Vehicles - Battery & Motor Sizing (1)
1.24.Electric Vehicles - Battery & Motor Sizing (2)
1.25.Electric Vehicles - Battery & Motor Sizing (3)
1.26.2023 Electric Vehicle Sales by Segment
1.27.2023 Electric Vehicle Battery Demand
1.28.Battery Demand by Segment 2023 vs 2045
1.29.Battery Demand by Segment - Cumulative 2025-2045
1.30.Battery Energy Density Requirements for EVs
1.31.Electric Motor Type Market Share by Vehicle
2.ELECTRIC CARS
2.1.Electric Cars Report Overview
2.2.Global EV Sales, 2011 - H1 2024
2.3.Peak Car - Global Car Sales 2015-2045
2.4.Regional Snapshot - China
2.5.Regional Snapshot - EU + UK + EFTA
2.6.Regional Snapshot - USA
2.7.A Temporary Slowdown in Growth or Longer-term Issues
2.8.BYD and Tesla Remain Biggest EV Sellers
2.9.OEM EV Profitability Varies Significantly
2.10.Automaker EV Targets
2.11.USA - Sales, Policy and Players Overview
2.12.US EV Market Shares
2.13.US - SUVs and Crossovers Gain Traction
2.14.Electric Pickups Sales Grow
2.15.USA EPA Regulations Overview
2.16.EPA Fleet Emissions - 2022 Data Assessment
2.17.2022 OEM CO2 Results - USA
2.18.ICE Bans Beyond 2035
2.19.Potential Impacts of the 2024 Election
2.20.Europe Summary
2.21.Germany - Abrupt Subsidy Cancellation Causes Downturn
2.22.Europe Regulations - Overview
2.23.EU Passenger Car Emissions
2.24.OEM Specific Target Calculation
2.25.EU OEM Pools
2.26.EU - OEM Targets
2.27.2023 CO2 Emissions Performance by OEM - Europe
2.28.2025 Potential OEM Emissions Fines
2.29.Pathways to Compliance
2.30.Plug-in Hybrid Outlook - Europe
2.31.Can Pooling Alone Meet Targets?
2.32.OEM Compliance BEV Share Forecasts
2.33.EU China BEV Trade Tariffs
2.34.EU - Anti-Subsidy Tariffs
2.35.EU China Trade Figures
2.36.Automotive Reactions to Tariffs
2.37.China - Sales, Policy and Players Overview
2.38.China - NEV Market Continues to Grow
2.39.NEV Market - BEV vs PHEV Price Decreases
2.40.OEMs Show Continued Interest in PHEVs
2.41.PHEV and BEV Price Forecasts
2.42.China Purchase Subsidies Extended
2.43.The Dual-Credit System
2.44.Increased NEV Sales Triggers Revision of Credit System
2.45.Chinese Dual-Credit Adjustments
2.46.Electric Cars Forecasts - Commentary
2.47.Electric Cars Forecasts - Unit Sales
2.48.Electric Car Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
2.49.Electric Car Forecasts - Market Value
3.ELECTRIC LIGHT COMMERCIAL VEHICLES (ELCVS)
3.1.eLCV Report Overview
3.2.eLCVs - Key Findings
3.3.Light Commercial Vehicles
3.4.Emissions Restrictions & Fossil Fuel Bans To Drive eLCV Growth
3.5.LCV Sales in Major Markets (ICE vs. EV)
3.6.Electric and Diesel LCV Cost Parity
3.7.Key eLCV OEMs
3.8.Europe eLCV Sales
3.9.China eLCV Sales
3.10.US eLCV Sales
3.11.Depreciation Dominates eLCV TCO
3.12.eLCVs Require Purchase Grants To Generate ROI
3.13.eLCV Batteries Can Match ICE Performance
3.14.Battery Sizes Vary by Region
3.15.Fuel Cells LCVs Need Green Hydrogen - But Electricity Will Be Cheaper
3.16.eLCV Forecast Commentary
3.17.eLCV Forecasts - Unit Sales
3.18.eLCV Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
3.19.eLCV Forecasts - Market Value (USD)
4.ELECTRIC TRUCKS
4.1.Electric Trucks Report overview
4.2.Electric Trucks - Key Findings
4.3.Trucks are Capital Goods
4.4.Zero Emission Trucks: Drivers and Barriers
4.5.Fuel Consumption, CO2 and GHG standards
4.6.EU Timeline for Heavy Duty Truck Electrification
4.7.US Truck Emissions Standards
4.8.Range of Zero Emission M&HD Trucks: Vehicle Weight vs Range
4.9.Regional Model Availability 2021-2024
4.10.BEV and FCEV M&HD Trucks: Weight vs Battery Capacity
4.11.Heavy Duty Truck Models Motor Power
4.12.What do Electric Trucks Need to Deliver
4.13.Duty Cycle Energy Considerations
4.14.Addressable US Market of BEV Trucks
4.15.Fuel Cell Power vs Vehicle Weight - OEM Benchmarking
4.16.Must be Green H2 for FCEV to be 'Green'
4.17.System Efficiency Between BEVs and FCEVs
4.18.5-year TCO ICE, BEV, FCEV, H2-ICE
4.19.Charging Solutions for Heavy Duty Fleet: High Level Findings
4.20.Why Megawatt Charging is Important
4.21.Electric Trucks Forecasts - Commentary
4.22.Electric Trucks Forecast - Unit Sales
4.23.Electric Truck Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
4.24.Electric Trucks Forecast - Market Value (USD)
5.ELECTRIC BUSES
5.1.Electric Buses Report Overview
5.2.Electric Buses - Key Findings(1)
5.3.Electric Buses - Key Findings(2)
5.4.Global Bus and Coach Vehicle Production
5.5.Options for Reduced Emissions Buses
5.6.Categorization of Drivetrain Terms
5.7.Electric Buses - a Global Outlook
5.8.Global Markets for Alternative Drivetrain Buses - a Summary
5.9.Global Overview of Bus Fleets
5.10.Bus Categories and Electrification Rates
5.11.Electric Buses - Key Players
5.12.Electric Bus OEMs and Market Shares in China
5.13.Electric Bus OEMs and Market Shares in Europe
5.14.Battery Capacity in Buses Increasing
5.15.Regional Battery Sizing Trends
5.16.Chinese Market Favours LFP, European Market More Mixed
5.17.Motor Mounting - Central or Axle Mounted (2)
5.18.Motor Benchmarking and Metrics for Buses
5.19.Battery Demand and Market Value 2024-2045
5.20.Electric Bus Forecasts - Commentary
5.21.Electric Bus Forecast - Unit Sales
5.22.Electric Bus Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
5.23.Electric Bus Forecasts - Market Value (USD)
6.MICRO EVS
6.1.Micro EVs - Key Takeaways
6.2.Micro EV Types
6.3.Micro EV Characteristics
6.4.Comparison of Micro EV Segments
6.5.Micro EVs are Sustainable
6.6.Global Two-wheeler Markets Snapshot
6.7.Asia Home to Major Electric Two-wheeler Markets
6.8.India Electric Two- and Three- wheeler Market Growth
6.9.Growth Drivers of Electric Two Wheelers in India
6.10.Indian Electric Two-wheeler OEMs
6.11.China Electric Two-wheeler Market History
6.12.ASEAN Markets
6.13.Historic Sales in Southeast Asia
6.14.Electric Two-wheeler Market Shares in ASEAN Countries
6.15.ASEAN Electric Two-wheeler Brands
6.16.Electric Mopeds and Motorcycles in Europe
6.17.The Role of Three-wheelers
6.18.China and India: Major Three-wheeler Markets
6.19.Examples of Indian E3W Models
6.20.Chinese Three-wheeler Types
6.21.Examples of Chinese E3W Models
6.22.Three Wheelers Outside China and India
6.23.Microcars: The Goldilocks of Urban EVs
6.24.Examples of Microcars by Region
6.25.Unregistered Low Speed EVs in China
6.26.Average Battery Capacities of Microcars
6.27.Electric Quadricycle Sales in EU
6.28.Micro EV Forecasts - Commentary
6.29.Micro EV Forecasts - Unit Sales
6.30.Micro EV Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
6.31.Micro EV Forecasts - Market Value (USD)
7.ELECTRIC MARINE
7.1.Electric Boats & Ships Overview
7.2.Electric Marine - Key Takeaways
7.3.Marine sectors & powertrain suitability
7.4.Summary of market drivers for electric & hybrid marine
7.5.Marine battery market history 2019-2025 by subsector: ferry, cruise, ro-ro, cargo, OSV, tug, other
7.6.Electric ferry adoption in Norway 2015-2030
7.7.The need for alternative fuels & fuel cells
7.8.The importance of batteries in hybrid systems
7.9.Why marine batteries are unique
7.10.Marine systems: stacks & strings scaling to MWh
7.11.Marine battery system specs
7.12.Maritime battery supplier market share 2018-2022 (MWh)
7.13.Battery chemistries for marine applications
7.14.Overview of policy for maritime batteries
7.15.Policy drivers & barriers for recreational electric boating
7.16.Solutions for New Maritime Emissions Regulations
7.17.EV Marine Forecast - Overview
7.18.EV Marine Forecasts - Commentary
7.19.EV Marine Forecasts - Commercial Unit Sales
7.20.EV Marine Forecasts - Commercial Battery Demand
7.21.Recreational Marine Vessels - Unit Sales by Power Class
7.22.Marine Battery System - Market Value (USD)
8.ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN CONSTRUCTION
8.1.Electric Vehicles in Construction Report Overview
8.2.Electric Vehicles for Construction - Key Takeaways (1)
8.3.Electric Vehicles for Construction - Key Takeaways (2)
8.4.Construction Machines
8.5.Key Construction Machines for Electrification
8.6.Construction OEMs
8.7.Electrification Activity of Major OEMs
8.8.Advantages and Barriers to Machine Electrification
8.9.Advantages of Electric Mini-Excavators
8.10.Electric Machines Match Performance of Diesel
8.11.Electric Machines Can Reach Runtime Parity with Diesel
8.12.Options for Meeting Duty Cycle Demands
8.13.Energy Cost Savings Alone Cannot Make EVs Favorable
8.14.Maintenance Savings Are Crucial To TCO Breakeven
8.15.Purchase Grants and Emissions Charges Help Generate ROI
8.16.Retrofitting Is Not A Viable Long-Term Option
8.17.In-House Production Generates TCO Benefits
8.18.Energy Prices Will Impact Machine TCO
8.19.Battery Sizing Meets Performance Requirements
8.20.Battery Chemistries in Construction
8.21.Battery Pack Requirements for Construction Machines
8.22.Electric Construction Machines Forecasts - Commentary
8.23.Electric Construction Machines Forecasts - Unit Sales
8.24.Electric Construction Machines Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
8.25.Electric Construction Machines Forecasts - Market Value
9.ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN MINING
9.1.Electric Vehicles in Mining Report Overview
9.2.Key Report Findings
9.3.Mining Vehicles
9.4.Key Mining Vehicle Types for Electrification
9.5.Key Mining OEMs
9.6.Mining OEMs Electrifying
9.7.Advantages to Electrification
9.8.Barriers to Electrification
9.9.EV Haul Truck Runtime Estimates
9.10.EV Haul Truck TCO
9.11.Battery Replacements for EV Haul Trucks
9.12.Energy Price Impact on TCO
9.13.Power-Agnostic Haul Trucks
9.14.Charging and Ventilation Costs
9.15.EV Underground Loader TCO
9.16.EV Underground Loader: Impact of Vehicle Lifetimes
9.17.Battery Sizing by Vehicle Type
9.18.Battery Chemistry by Vehicle Type
9.19.Battery Chemistry by Region
9.20.Options for Meeting Duty Cycle Demands
9.21.OEMs Charging vs. Battery Swapping
9.22.Electric Mining Vehicles Forecasts - Commentary
9.23.Electric Mining Vehicles Forecasts - Unit Sales
9.24.Electric Mining Vehicles Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
9.25.Electric Mining Vehicles Forecasts - Market Value
10.ELECTRIC AND FUEL CELL TRAINS
10.1.Electric & Fuel Cell Trains Report Overview
10.2.Electric Trains Introduction
10.3.Electric Trains - Key Takeaways
10.4.Drivers for Zero-Emissions Trains
10.5.Barriers for Rail Electrification
10.6.Electrification of Rail Networks
10.7.Train Types - Summary
10.8.Multiple Unit Trains
10.9.BEV Multiple Unit Orders 2022-2026 & Supplier Market Shares
10.10.Battery Capacity of BEV Multiple Units, Shunters, Locomotives 2022-2043 (kWh/ unit)
10.11.Key Performance Indicators for Train Battery Systems
10.12.Fuel Cell Train Overview
10.13.Production Model FC Multiple Unit Specifications
10.14.FC Locomotives Summary
10.15.Electric Trains Forecasts - Commentary
10.16.Electric Trains Forecasts - Unit Sales
10.17.Electric Trains Forecasts - Battery Demand (MWh)
10.18.Electric Trains Forecasts - Market Value (USD)
11.ELECTRIC CONVENTIONAL TAKE-OFF & LANDING (ECTOL)
11.1.Report overview
11.2.Battery Electric and Hydrogen-Powered Airplane Key Takeaways
11.3.Aircraft Types Covered in this Chapter
11.4.Aircraft Type Summary - Private and General Aviation
11.5.Aircraft Type Summary - Business Jet
11.6.Aircraft Type Summary - Commercial Airliner
11.7.Overview of Plane Types Energy and Power Requirements
11.8.Batteries are too Heavy for Larger Planes...
11.9....But Hydrogen is too Light
11.10.Full Electric Aircraft SWOT
11.11.Hydrogen Fuel Cell SWOT
11.12.Hydrogen Combustion SWOT
11.13.SAF Will Have a Key Role - Key Takeaways for SAF
11.14.Converting a Commercial Airliner to Battery Electric
11.15.Building A Hydrogen Variant of a Commercial Airliner- Impact on Range - Airbus A321neo
11.16.Useful Ranges of Hydrogen and Battery Electric Aircraft
11.17.Hydrogen Needs to Come from the Right Source to be Carbon Neutral...
11.18.But Electric Planes can be Carbon Neutral Regardless of the Grid
11.19.Fuel Cell vs Hydrogen Jet Engines
11.20.Typical Airplane Engines
11.21.Motors are Power Dense Enough to Replace Airplane Engines but not Powerful Enough for the Largest Planes
11.22.eCTOL Forecasts - Commentary
11.23.eCTOL Forecasts - Unit Sales
11.24.eCTOL Forecasts - Battery Demand (MWh)
11.25.eCTOL Forecasts - Market Value (USD)
12.ELECTRIC AIR TAXIS (EVTOL)
12.1.Report overview
12.2.What is an eVTOL Aircraft?
12.3.Main eVTOL Architectures
12.4.Why eVTOL Aircraft?
12.5.Huge Companies are Already Investing in eVTOL
12.6.eVTOL Getting Off the Ground
12.7.The eVTOL Market is Very Crowded
12.8.2024 OEM Updates
12.9.eVTOLs Have Attracted Significant Commercial Interest
12.10.eVTOL OEMs are Attracting Large Funding
12.11.New Manufacturing Facilities and Production Plans
12.12.eVTOL OEMs will Have to Weather a Tougher Investor Climate
12.13.When will the First eVTOL Air Taxis Launch? Slipping Timelines as Market Entry Draws Closer
12.14.Air Taxi Services
12.15.Conclusions on Air Taxi Time Saving
12.16.Conclusions on Air Taxi Time Saving
12.17.eVTOL as an Urban Mass Mobility Solution?
12.18.Where is the eVTOL Air Taxi Advantage?
12.19.The Value of Autonomous Flight
12.20.eVTOL: Summary of Enabling Technologies
12.21.The Need for Component Improvements
12.22.eVTOL Battery Requirements
12.23.eVTOL Motor / Powertrain Requirements
12.24.eVTOL Composite Material Requirements
12.25.eVTOL Infrastructure Requirements
12.26.Companies Developing Vertiports
12.27.eVTOL Forecasts - Commentary (1)
12.28.eVTOL Forecasts - Commentary (2)
12.29.eVTOL Forecasts - Unit Sales
12.30.eVTOL Forecasts - Battery Demand (MWh)
12.31.eVTOL Forecasts - Market Value (USD)
13.TECHNOLOGY TRENDS - LI-ION BATTERY CELLS & PACKS, MOTORS, 800V
13.1.Components
13.1.1.The 'Big Three' in EV
13.2.Batteries
13.2.1.What is a Li-ion battery?
13.2.2.Lithium Battery Chemistries
13.2.3.Types of lithium battery
13.2.4.Key technology developments
13.2.5.Li-ion performance and technology timeline
13.2.6.Readiness level snapshot
13.2.7.Are there alternatives to Li-ion?
13.2.8.Liquid vs. Solid-state Batteries
13.2.9.Global Electric Car Battery Chemistry
13.2.10.Average Battery Capacity Forecast
13.2.11.Cathode comparisons
13.2.12.Energy density by cathode
13.2.13.Shifts in cell and pack design
13.2.14.Modular pack designs
13.2.15.What is Cell-to-pack?
13.2.16.Drivers and Challenges for Cell-to-pack
13.2.17.What is Cell-to-chassis/body?
13.2.18.Gravimetric Energy Density and Cell-to-pack Ratio
13.2.19.Cathode Market Share in Li-ion For EVs
13.3.Electric Motors
13.3.1.Summary of Traction Motor Types
13.3.2.Average Motor Power 2023 by Vehicle Category (kW)
13.3.3.Convergence on PM Motors by Major Automakers
13.3.4.Motor Type Market Share Forecast
13.3.5.Commentary on Electric Traction Motor Trends in Cars
13.3.6.OEM & Tier 1 Approaches to Eliminate Rare Earths
13.3.7.The Many Types of Square Winding
13.3.8.Hairpin Winding Regional Market Shares
13.3.9.Motor Mounting - Central or Axle Mounted
13.3.10.Traction Motors of Choice for Electric Buses
13.3.11.eVTOL Motor Sizing
13.3.12.Overview of Plane Types Energy and Power Requirements
13.3.13.Environmental Impact of Several BEV Motors
13.3.14.Motor Type Power Density Benchmark
13.4.Power Electronics
13.4.1.Power Electronics in Electric Vehicles
13.4.2.Benchmarking Silicon, Silicon Carbide & Gallium Nitride Semiconductors
13.4.3.Automotive GaN Device Suppliers are Growing
13.4.4.GaN vs SiC potential in the Inverter
13.4.5.Inverter Power Density Increases Over Time
13.4.6.200mm SiC Wafer Production Worldwide
13.4.7.Vertical Integration: Acquisitions and Collaborations
13.4.8.SiC Impact on the Inverter Cost
13.4.9.Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET Price Comparison
13.4.10.SiC Drives 800V Platforms
13.4.11.800V charging speeds
13.4.12.800V Platforms SiC and Si IGBT Inverters
13.4.13.Integration of Power Electronics
13.4.14.Integrated OBC with DC-DC converter
13.4.15.Traction Integrated Onboard Charger
13.4.16.Comparison of Single-Sided Cooling and Double-Sided Cooling
14.CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE
14.1.Overview of charging levels
14.2.EV charging ecosystem
14.3.EV charging experiencing continued growth
14.4.Six key market trends in EV charging
14.5.General points about the EV charging market
14.6.DC fast charging levels
14.7.Cost per kW of installing chargers varies
14.8.Public charging pain points still exist
14.9.Charging is complex, especially at scale
14.10.Delays in DCFC deployment due to utility-side upgrades and supply-chain constraints
14.11.Generation landscape - off-grid operation
14.12.Comparison of off-grid charging technologies
14.13.Megawatt charging: a new segment of high-power DC fast charging
14.14.Destination DC charging: a new product class for EVSE manufacturers
14.15.Site architecture: distributed vs all-in-one solutions
14.16.SiC enables future EV charging power trends
14.17.Alternate charging strategies emerging
14.18.Evaluation of different charging strategies
14.19.Outlook for EV Charging Technologies
14.20.The landscape for charging infrastructure
14.21.is getting competitive
14.22.IDTechEx EV charging leaderboard
14.23.AC/DC V2G system SWOT analysis
14.24.List of BEVs capable of V2X
14.25.Share of V2X-capable vs. unidirectional EV sales
14.26.Why V2H will drive V2X adoption
14.27.Cost of V2H system still not attractive
14.28.Global charging infrastructure installations
15.MARKET FORECASTS
15.1.Electric Vehicles Land, Sea, & Air - Unit Sales 2023-2045
15.2.Electric Vehicles Land, Sea, & Air - Battery Demand 2023-2045
15.3.Electric Vehicles Land, Sea, & Air - Market Value 2023-2045
15.4.Electric Cars Forecasts - Commentary
15.5.Electric Cars Forecasts - Unit Sales
15.6.Electric Car Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
15.7.Electric Car Forecasts - Market Value
15.8.eLCV Forecast Commentary
15.9.eLCV Forecasts - Unit Sales
15.10.eLCV Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
15.11.eLCV Forecasts - Market Value (USD)
15.12.Electric Trucks Forecasts - Commentary
15.13.Electric Trucks Forecast - Unit Sales
15.14.Electric Truck Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
15.15.Electric Trucks Forecast - Market Value (USD)
15.16.Electric Bus Forecasts - Commentary
15.17.Electric Bus Forecast - Unit Sales
15.18.Electric Bus Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
15.19.Electric Bus Forecasts - Market Value (USD)
15.20.Micro EV Forecasts - Commentary
15.21.Micro EV Forecasts - Unit Sales
15.22.Micro EV Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
15.23.Micro EV Forecasts - Market Value (USD)
15.24.EV Marine Forecasts - Commentary
15.25.EV Marine Forecasts - Commercial Unit Sales
15.26.EV Marine Forecasts - Commercial Battery Demand
15.27.Recreational Marine Vessels - Unit Sales by Power Class
15.28.Marine Battery System - Market Value (USD)
15.29.Electric Construction Machines Forecasts - Commentary
15.30.Electric Construction Machines Forecasts - Unit Sales
15.31.Electric Construction Machines Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
15.32.Electric Construction Machines Forecasts - Market Value
15.33.Electric Mining Vehicles Forecasts - Commentary
15.34.Electric Mining Vehicles Forecasts - Unit Sales
15.35.Electric Mining Vehicles Forecasts - Battery Demand (GWh)
15.36.Electric Mining Vehicles Forecasts - Market Value
15.37.Electric Trains Forecasts - Commentary
15.38.Electric Trains Forecasts - Unit Sales
15.39.Electric Trains Forecasts - Battery Demand (MWh)
15.40.Electric Trains Forecasts - Market Value (USD)
15.41.eCTOL Forecasts - Commentary
15.42.eCTOL Forecasts - Unit Sales
15.43.eCTOL Forecasts - Battery Demand (MWh)
15.44.eCTOL Forecasts - Market Value (USD)
15.45.eVTOL Forecasts - Commentary (1)
15.46.eVTOL Forecasts - Commentary (2)
15.47.eVTOL Forecasts - Unit Sales
15.48.eVTOL Forecasts - Battery Demand (MWh)
15.49.eVTOL Forecasts - Market Value (USD)
 

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Electric vehicles across land, sea, and air to generate US$3.6 trillion by 2045

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Slides 480
Forecasts to 2045
Published Dec 2024
 

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ISBN: 9781835700877

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