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1. | EXECUTIVE SUMMARY |
1.1. | At current rates, the world will not meet the Paris Agreement |
1.2. | Carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) |
1.3. | CO2 utilization and storage pathways |
1.4. | Global status of CCUS |
1.5. | Large-scale CCUS facilities in operation in 2020 |
1.6. | Carbon pricing |
1.7. | Carbon pricing across the world |
1.8. | Carbon capture |
1.9. | CO2 source impacts costs and technology choice |
1.10. | Current point source CO2 capture costs |
1.11. | Global point source CO2 capture capacity by year |
1.12. | Global point source CO2 capture capacity by CO2 source |
1.13. | What is Direct Air Capture (DAC)? |
1.14. | DAC vs. point source carbon capture |
1.15. | Carbon capture capacity forecast, 2021-2040 |
1.16. | Carbon capture capacity forecast by capture type |
1.17. | Carbon utilization |
1.18. | Major emerging applications of CO2 utilization |
1.19. | Overview of major emerging CO2 utilization applications |
1.20. | Potential for use and climate benefits of major emerging CO2 utilization applications |
1.21. | Key players in CO2 utilization |
1.22. | Carbon pricing is needed for most applications to break even |
1.23. | Carbon storage |
1.24. | Global CO2 storage potential |
1.25. | The cost of carbon sequestration |
1.26. | The impact of oil prices on CCS |
1.27. | EOR: an on-ramp for CCS |
1.28. | Carbon capture capacity forecast by end use |
2. | INTRODUCTION |
2.1. | Reduced carbon dioxide emissions directives |
2.2. | Why is a 1.5°C global temperature rise significant? |
2.3. | Global CO2 emissions by region, 1900-2019 |
2.4. | At current rates, the world will not meet the Paris Agreement |
2.5. | The need for negative emissions technologies (NETs) |
2.6. | Carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) |
2.7. | CCUS is needed for the world to reach its targets |
2.8. | Carbon capture |
2.9. | Carbon transport |
2.10. | CO2 utilization and storage pathways |
2.11. | Carbon utilization |
2.12. | Examples of CO2 utilization pathways |
2.13. | Carbon storage |
2.14. | Challenges in CCUS |
2.15. | Carbon capture - technical challenges |
2.16. | Carbon storage - technical challenges |
2.17. | Carbon utilization - technical challenges |
2.18. | Will CCUS arrive in time to make a difference? |
2.19. | Global status of CCUS |
2.20. | CCUS - developments in 2019 |
2.21. | CCUS - developments in 2020 |
2.22. | COVID-19 and CCUS |
2.23. | Large-scale CCUS facilities in operation in 2020 |
2.24. | Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project |
2.25. | Century Plant |
2.26. | Large-scale CCUS facilities in operation in 2020 |
2.27. | Large-scale CCUS facilities in construction in 2020 |
2.28. | Large-scale CCUS facilities in advanced development in 2020 |
2.29. | Large-scale CCUS facilities in early development in 2020 |
3. | CARBON PRICING STRATEGIES |
3.1. | Carbon pricing |
3.2. | Carbon pricing across the world |
3.3. | Challenges with carbon pricing |
3.4. | The European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS) |
3.5. | Carbon pricing in the European Union |
3.6. | Has the EU ETS had an impact? |
3.7. | Carbon pricing in the UK |
3.8. | Carbon pricing in the US |
3.9. | 45Q tax credits in the US |
3.10. | Carbon pricing in China |
3.11. | Carbon pricing in South Africa |
3.12. | Carbon prices in currently implemented ETS or carbon tax schemes (2021) |
4. | CARBON CAPTURE |
4.1. | Point source carbon capture |
4.1.1. | Point source carbon capture - overview |
4.1.2. | Point sources of CO2 emissions |
4.1.3. | CO2 source impacts costs and technology choice |
4.1.4. | Post-combustion CO2 capture |
4.1.5. | Pre-combustion CO2 capture |
4.1.6. | Oxyfuel combustion CO2 capture |
4.1.7. | Methods of CO2 separation |
4.1.8. | Metrics for CO2 capture |
4.1.9. | Solvent-based CO2 separation |
4.1.10. | Chemical absorption solvents |
4.1.11. | Liquid absorption with amines |
4.1.12. | Physical absorption solvents |
4.1.13. | Major commercially available physical absorption solvents |
4.1.14. | Solvents used in current operational CCUS projects |
4.1.15. | Innovation in carbon capture solvents |
4.1.16. | Carbon Clean Solutions |
4.1.17. | Examples of next generation solvent technologies |
4.1.18. | Sorbent-based CO2 separation |
4.1.19. | Solid sorbents for CO2 capture |
4.1.20. | Svante |
4.1.21. | Membrane-based CO2 separation |
4.1.22. | Membranes: operating principles |
4.1.23. | Membrane Technology and Research |
4.1.24. | Novel concepts for CO2 separation |
4.1.25. | FuelCell Energy |
4.1.26. | Capture technology innovation |
4.1.27. | The costs of carbon capture |
4.1.28. | Power plants with CCUS generate less energy |
4.1.29. | The Petra Nova Project |
4.1.30. | The closure of Petra Nova - a lesson for the industry? |
4.1.31. | Boundary Dam |
4.1.32. | Current point source CO2 capture costs |
4.1.33. | Global point source CO2 capture capacity by year |
4.1.34. | Global point source CO2 capture capacity by CO2 source |
4.1.35. | Going beyond CO2 capture rates of 90% |
4.1.36. | Is a zero-emissions fossil power plant possible? |
4.1.37. | 99% capture rate: suitability of different technologies |
4.1.38. | Higher capture rates are possible, but add significant cost using today's technology |
4.1.39. | CO2 transportation |
4.1.40. | Cost considerations in pipeline transport |
4.1.41. | Technical challenges in CO2 transport |
4.1.42. | Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) |
4.1.43. | BECCS deployment has historically been slow |
4.1.44. | BECCS facilities in operation or planning worldwide |
4.1.45. | BECCS has major potential for emissions mitigation |
4.1.46. | Challenges in BECCS |
4.2. | Direct air capture (DAC) |
4.2.1. | What is Direct Air Capture (DAC)? |
4.2.2. | Methods of DAC |
4.2.3. | Challenges associated with DAC technology |
4.2.4. | Companies active in the field of CO2 direct air capture |
4.2.5. | High temperature aqueous solution DAC |
4.2.6. | Low temperature solid sorbent DAC |
4.2.7. | Sorbents used in low temperature solid sorbent DAC |
4.2.8. | High temperature vs. low temperature DAC |
4.2.9. | A comparison of DAC sorbents in commercial development |
4.2.10. | Alternative technologies for DAC |
4.2.11. | A comparison of DAC companies at or approaching commercial scale |
4.2.12. | Operating DAC plants and plants in development |
4.2.13. | Carbon Engineering |
4.2.14. | Climeworks |
4.2.15. | The acquisition of Antecy by Climeworks |
4.2.16. | Global Thermostat |
4.2.17. | Hydrocell |
4.2.18. | Infinitree |
4.2.19. | Skytree |
4.2.20. | Prometheus Fuels |
4.2.21. | The economics of direct air capture |
4.2.22. | CAPEX and evolution of DAC capacity |
4.2.23. | Assumptions made in the CAPEX and capacity forecasts |
4.2.24. | OPEX in DAC |
4.2.25. | The influence of power costs |
4.2.26. | Estimating the cost of DAC |
4.2.27. | Evolution of DAC costs |
4.2.28. | Additional considerations in DAC deployment |
4.2.29. | DAC vs. point source carbon capture |
4.3. | Carbon Capture: Outlook |
4.3.1. | Carbon capture in the IEA Sustainable Development Scenario |
4.3.2. | Carbon capture capacity if all current projects begin or remain in operation |
4.3.3. | Carbon capture capacity forecast, 2021-2040 |
4.3.4. | Carbon capture capacity forecast by capture type |
4.3.5. | Carbon capture capacity forecast by end use |
4.4. | Other negative emissions technologies (NETs) |
4.4.1. | Negative emissions technologies (NETs) |
4.4.2. | The major negative emissions technologies (NETs) |
4.4.3. | Afforestation and reforestation |
4.4.4. | Soil carbon sequestration |
4.4.5. | Biochar |
4.4.6. | Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) |
4.4.7. | Direct air capture (DAC) - see Section 3ii. for more details |
4.4.8. | Enhanced weathering and ocean alkalinisation |
4.4.9. | Ocean fertilisation |
4.4.10. | Technical and environmental characteristics of NETs |
4.4.11. | Negative emissions technologies: deferring the problem? |
5. | CARBON UTILIZATION |
5.1. | Overview |
5.1.1. | Carbon utilization |
5.1.2. | How is CO2 produced conventionally? |
5.1.3. | How is CO2 used today? |
5.1.4. | CO2 utilization can contribute to climate goals |
5.1.5. | Factors driving future market potential |
5.1.6. | Major emerging applications of CO2 utilization |
5.1.7. | DyeCoo |
5.2. | CO2-derived fuels |
5.2.1. | CO2-derived fuels |
5.2.2. | CO2-derived fuels as e-fuels |
5.2.3. | Routes to e-fuel production |
5.2.4. | The challenge of energy efficiency |
5.2.5. | The price and availability of hydrogen |
5.2.6. | Introduction to fuel cells |
5.2.7. | Fuel cell and electrolyser overview |
5.2.8. | Electrolyser basics |
5.2.9. | Electrolyser overview |
5.2.10. | Introduction to solid oxide electrolysers |
5.2.11. | SOEC syngas production |
5.2.12. | Sunfire |
5.2.13. | Haldor Topsøe |
5.2.14. | Electrolyser degradation |
5.2.15. | Solid oxide electrolyser cell players |
5.2.16. | Room-temperature electrochemical CO2 reduction |
5.2.17. | Electrochemical CO2 reduction products |
5.2.18. | Electrolyser/fuel cell manufacturers |
5.2.19. | Methanol from CO2 |
5.2.20. | Methanol from CO2: conversion methods |
5.2.21. | Carbon Recycling International |
5.2.22. | CO2-derived methane |
5.2.23. | Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) synthesis of fuels from syngas |
5.2.24. | Audi synthetic fuel |
5.2.25. | Dimensional Energy |
5.2.26. | Algae based biofuels |
5.2.27. | Algenol |
5.2.28. | LanzaTech |
5.2.29. | CO2-derived fuel: players |
5.2.30. | CO2-derived fuels: market potential |
5.3. | CO2-derived chemicals |
5.3.1. | CO2 can be converted into a giant range of chemicals |
5.3.2. | Urea production: the most developed application |
5.3.3. | Methanol is a valuable chemical feedstock |
5.3.4. | Commercial production of polycarbonate from CO2 |
5.3.5. | Econic |
5.3.6. | Opus 12 |
5.3.7. | CO2 utilization in biomanufacturing |
5.3.8. | Cemvita Factory |
5.3.9. | CO2-derived chemicals: market potential |
5.4. | CO2-derived building materials |
5.4.1. | CO2-derived building materials from natural minerals |
5.4.2. | Why decarbonisation of concrete matters |
5.4.3. | CO2 mineralisation |
5.4.4. | Carbonfree Chemicals |
5.4.5. | CarbonCure |
5.4.6. | Solidia Technologies |
5.4.7. | CO2-derived building materials from natural minerals: market potential |
5.4.8. | CO2-derived building materials from waste |
5.4.9. | CO2-derived building materials from waste: market potential |
5.4.10. | Carbon8 |
5.5. | CO2 utilization to boost biological yields |
5.5.1. | CO2 utilization to boost yields of biological processes |
5.5.2. | CO2 utilization to boost yields of biological processes: market potential |
5.6. | CO2 utilization: market perspective |
5.6.1. | Overview of major emerging CO2 utilization applications |
5.6.2. | Overview of major emerging CO2 utilization applications - further information |
5.6.3. | Potential for use and climate benefits of major emerging CO2 utilization applications |
5.6.4. | Climate benefits of major CO2 utilization applications |
5.6.5. | Climate benefits of major CO2 utilization applications |
5.6.6. | Key players in CO2 utilization |
5.6.7. | Carbon capture capacity forecast by end use |
5.6.8. | Cost effectiveness of CO2 utilization applications |
5.6.9. | Carbon pricing is needed for most applications to break even |
6. | CARBON STORAGE |
6.1. | Carbon storage/sequestration |
6.2. | Storing CO2 underground |
6.3. | Mechanisms of subsurface CO2 trapping |
6.4. | Storage types for geologic CO2 storage |
6.5. | Global CO2 storage potential |
6.6. | Estimates of global CO2 storage space |
6.7. | CO2 leakage is a small risk |
6.8. | Can CO2 storage be monetized? |
6.9. | Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) |
6.10. | The cost of carbon sequestration |
6.11. | The impact of oil prices on CCS |
6.12. | EOR: an on-ramp for CCS |
6.13. | Potential for cost reduction in transport and storage |
スライド | 277 |
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フォーキャスト | 2040 |
ISBN | 9781913899356 |