1. | EXECUTIVE SUMMARY |
1.1. | The scope of this report |
1.2. | Who should read this report? |
1.3. | Research methodology |
1.4. | Conventional battery sensors |
1.5. | Advanced sensors and alternatives |
1.6. | Regulatory background: Electric vehicles |
1.7. | The need for further regulation |
1.8. | Sensor technology benchmarking |
1.9. | Problems solved by advanced sensor deployments |
1.10. | Comparing gas sensing technologies |
1.11. | Comparing pressure sensor technologies |
1.12. | Comparing strain sensor technologies |
1.13. | Player analysis: Individual sensors vs complete package |
1.14. | Sensor type benchmarking |
1.15. | Remote monitoring and control |
1.16. | Comparing remote monitoring methods |
1.17. | Interest by region |
1.18. | Scope of forecasts |
1.19. | Methodologies |
1.20. | Advanced battery sensors units sold forecast |
1.21. | Advanced battery sensors market value forecast |
1.22. | Advanced sensor market 2036 by broad market sector |
1.23. | Advanced battery sensor market sector analysis |
1.24. | Advanced battery sensor market sector analysis cont. |
1.25. | Remote monitoring conclusions |
1.26. | Access More With an IDTechEx Subscription |
2. | INTRODUCTION |
2.1. | The battery management system |
2.2. | Generic BMS block diagram |
2.3. | BMS topologies |
2.4. | BMS core functionality |
2.5. | Functions of a BMS |
2.6. | Cell control |
2.7. | BMS components |
2.8. | Battery pack structure |
2.9. | Thermal runaway |
2.10. | Cell venting events |
2.11. | Battery degradation |
2.12. | Applications: EVs and BESS |
2.13. | Need to improve |
2.14. | Avenues for improvement |
2.15. | Advanced analytics via alternative sensors |
3. | TEMPERATURE, CURRENT AND VOLTAGE: IMPROVEMENTS TO CONVENTIONAL SENSOR DEPLOYMENTS |
3.1. | BMS targets: SoC, SoH and temperature |
3.1.1. | Conventional temperature sensors |
3.1.2. | Temperature sensors |
3.1.3. | Accuracy, range and response time requirements for temperature sensors in battery packs |
3.1.4. | Thermocouples |
3.1.5. | Thermistors |
3.1.6. | Resistance temperature detectors |
3.2. | Alternative temperature sensors |
3.2.1. | Optical fibre sensors: Point sensors and spectral shift |
3.2.2. | Optical fibre sensors: Design |
3.2.3. | Optical fibre sensors: Fibre Bragg gratings (FBGs) |
3.2.4. | Optical fibre sensors: Fabry-Pérot interferometers (FPIs) |
3.2.5. | Johnson noise thermometry |
3.2.6. | Infrared temperature sensors |
3.2.7. | Comparing temperature sensor technologies |
3.2.8. | Temperature sensor conclusions |
3.3. | Voltage and current sensors: Conventional technologies |
3.3.1. | Current and voltage measurements: The current shunt |
3.3.2. | Hall sensors and magneto-resistance sensors |
3.3.3. | SoC calculation: Coulomb counting |
3.3.4. | SoC calculation: Voltage look-up |
3.3.5. | SoH estimation |
3.4. | Alternative electrochemical state estimation methods |
3.4.1. | Advancements in SoH measurement: Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) |
3.4.2. | How EIS is used |
3.4.3. | Advantages of EIS |
3.4.4. | Necessary modifications to the battery pack |
3.4.5. | Module- vs cell-level EIS |
3.4.6. | Marelli |
3.4.7. | CSEM |
3.4.8. | Conclusions on integration of EIS into battery packs |
4. | ALTERNATIVE SENSORS FOR DETECTING THERMAL RUNAWAY |
4.1.1. | The need for new approaches |
4.1.2. | Advantages of low-power sensor deployments |
4.1.3. | State changes during thermal runaway |
4.1.4. | The process of battery component degradation during thermal runaway |
4.1.5. | Cell venting |
4.1.6. | Gas emission |
4.1.7. | Gas emission by cathode type |
4.1.8. | Gas emission vs. state of charge (SoC) |
4.1.9. | Gas sensor requirements |
4.1.10. | Cross-sensitivities in gas sensing |
4.1.11. | Pressure sensing - the basics |
4.1.12. | Pressure trends during thermal runaway |
4.2. | Hydrogen emission detectors |
4.2.1. | Hydrogen emission |
4.2.2. | Post-runaway combustion events |
4.2.3. | Principles of thermal conductivity sensing |
4.2.4. | Thermal conductivity sensor designs |
4.2.5. | Challenges of thermal conductivity sensing |
4.2.6. | Amphenol Advanced Sensors: Hydrogen |
4.2.7. | Posifa Technologies: Hydrogen |
4.2.8. | Chemi-resistive sensing |
4.2.9. | Selectivity vs sensitivity |
4.2.10. | Hydrogen sensing through chemi-resistive sensors |
4.2.11. | Nexceris |
4.3. | Volatile organic compound detectors |
4.3.1. | Volatile organic compounds: An introduction |
4.3.2. | Emission during runaway |
4.3.3. | Photoionization detector principle |
4.3.4. | Photoionization detectors |
4.3.5. | Metal oxide chemi-resistors |
4.3.6. | Li-ion Tamer ® |
4.4. | Carbon dioxide emission detectors |
4.4.1. | Carbon dioxide as a thermal runaway product |
4.4.2. | Non-dispersive infrared spectrometry (NDIR spectrometry) |
4.4.3. | NDIR CO2 sensor designs |
4.4.4. | Chemi-resistive carbon dioxide sensors |
4.5. | Carbon monoxide emission detectors |
4.5.1. | Carbon monoxide emission from thermal runaway |
4.5.2. | Tunable diode laser spectroscopy (TDLS) |
4.5.3. | Electrochemical sensors |
4.5.4. | Chemi-resistive sensors for carbon monoxide |
4.5.5. | Comparing gas sensing technologies |
4.5.6. | Gas sensor conclusions |
4.5.7. | Aerosol detectors |
4.5.8. | Aerosols present in the battery pack |
4.5.9. | Detection via light scattering |
4.5.10. | Honeywell |
4.5.11. | Sensing via ionization detectors |
4.5.12. | Pressure sensors |
4.5.13. | Pressure build-up during runaway |
4.5.14. | Typical pressure in a battery pack |
4.5.15. | Capacitive sensors |
4.5.16. | Piezoelectric sensors |
4.5.17. | Piezoresistive sensors |
4.5.18. | Infineon |
4.5.19. | Comparing pressure sensor technologies |
5. | SENSORS FOR MONITORING BATTERY COMPONENT EXPANSION |
5.1.1. | Battery volume changes |
5.1.2. | Electrode expansion by material for lithium-ion batteries |
5.1.3. | Silicon anode batteries |
5.1.4. | Correlating degradation with trends in volume changes |
5.1.5. | Dendrite detection: differential pressure |
5.2. | Stress/strain detectors |
5.2.1. | Stress and strain |
5.2.2. | Benefits of stress/strain detection |
5.2.3. | Typical pressure in a battery pack |
5.2.4. | Strain gauges |
5.2.5. | Foil vs silicon |
5.2.6. | Thin-film strain gauges |
5.2.7. | Optical fibre sensors: Bragg gratings |
5.2.8. | Optical fibre sensors: Distributed sensors |
5.2.9. | Comparing strain sensor technologies |
5.2.10. | Stress/strain sensor conclusions |
6. | SENSORS FOR DETECTING MOISTURE PRESENCE IN BATTERY PACKS |
6.1. | Moisture presence in the battery pack enclosure |
6.2. | Coolant leakage causes |
6.3. | Moisture detection via resistance |
6.4. | Moisture sensor design |
6.5. | Amphenol Advanced Sensors: Moisture detection |
6.6. | Humidity and dew points |
6.7. | Humidity control during battery manufacturing |
6.8. | The importance of dewpoints in a battery pack |
6.9. | Relative humidity detection |
6.10. | Absolute humidity detection |
6.11. | Metis Engineering |
7. | REMOTE COMMUNICATION AND LIVE CELL BALANCING |
7.1. | Communication protocols in battery packs |
7.2. | Important factors in battery pack sensor communication |
7.3. | Wired vs wireless |
7.4. | Benefits of remote monitoring |
7.5. | Proprietary vs standardized |
7.6. | Controller area network (CAN) protocol |
7.7. | Advantages of CAN |
7.8. | RS-485 |
7.9. | Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART) |
7.10. | Remote monitoring through wired conversion |
7.11. | Ethernet |
7.12. | Wireless options |
7.13. | Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) |
7.14. | Zigbee |
7.15. | Near-field communications (NFC) |
7.16. | Wi-fi and cellular networks |
7.17. | Menred ESS |
7.18. | MOKOENERGY |
7.19. | Nuvation Engineering |
7.20. | GM Motors |
7.21. | Comparing remote monitoring methods |
7.22. | Conclusions on remote monitoring BMSs |
8. | FORECASTS |
8.1. | Advanced battery sensors units sold forecast |
8.2. | Advanced battery sensors market value forecast |
8.3. | Remote monitoring conclusions |
9. | COMPANY PROFILES |
9.1. | List of company profile links |